• En 1571, Montaigne cède la charge qu'il occupait au parlement de Bordeaux. Il fait graver au mur de sa bibliothèque une inscription qui témoigne de son désir de se consacrer « à sa liberté, à sa tranquillité et à ses loisirs ». Il commence alors à travailler au premier livre des Essais. La première édition - constituée des livres I et II - paraît en 1580. Cette studieuse retraite est néanmoins entrecoupée de missions politiques, de voyages de découverte et de tâches liées à ses charges publiques. En 1572, Montaigne joue le rôle de négociateur entre Henri de Navarre et le duc de Guise. En 1580-1581, il effectue un voyage qui, par la Suisse et l'Allemagne du Sud, le mène en Italie, jusqu'à Rome. À son retour, il apprend que ses concitoyens l'ont élu maire de Bordeaux ; il occupe cette charge avec un remarquable sens de ses responsabilités de 1582 à 1584. Réélu, il fuit la ville devant la peste en 1585, et son second mandat s'achève sans gloire. À partir de 1586, il travaille au troisième livre des Essais. Deux ans plus tard, à l'occasion d'un long séjour à Paris, où ses activités politiques le conduisent dans l'entourage d'Henri III, il fait la connaissance de Marie de Gournay, sa future « fille d'alliance ». Cette même année 1588 paraît une nouvelle édition augmentée des Essais, incluant le troisième livre. Montaigne continuera à travailler jusqu'à sa mort à une nouvelle édition. Les annotations marginales de son exemplaire personnel - l'exemplaire dit « de Bordeaux » - constitueront la base de cette édition (posthume), réalisée en 1595 par Marie de Gournay et Pierre de Brach.
« Philosophe imprémédité », selon sa propre expression, Montaigne n'a pas développé dans ses Essais une réflexion conceptuelle : il s'est efforcé de pousser le plus loin possible une expérience de soi constamment enracinée dans l'existence quotidienne la plus concrète. Cette visée apparemment modeste n'en a pas moins une valeur historique et culturelle fondamentale : en une époque de chaos politico-religieux et de bouleversement de tous les repères, Montaigne s'est attaché à repenser et à négocier au mieux les rapports entre conscience intime et obligations mondaines, entre souci de sa propre intégrité et participation à la vie publique.
Montaillou,
petit village de l'Ariège, sujet d'une monographie célèbre de l'historien Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie.
Une source de documents exceptionnelle (des registres de l'Inquisition) a permis à l'historien de se livrer à une analyse approfondie de la vie matérielle, sociale, familiale et culturelle d'une communauté villageoise (Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324, publié en 1975). Ces registres, particulièrement bien conservés, ont été élaborés au début du XIVe siècle par l'évêque de Pamiers Jacques Fournier, confronté dans cette région isolée aux derniers soubresauts du catharisme méridional. Cet ecclésiastique interroge très minutieusement tous les suspects et fait consigner avec force détails toutes leurs dépositions. Les prévenus sont, dans leur grande majorité, des paysans et artisans originaires du haut pays de Foix. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie se sert donc de cette source pour se livrer à une étude ethnographique précise du village de Montaillou, situé sur un plateau entouré de forêts et de pâturages à environ 1 300 mètres d'altitude.
Montaillou compte, au début du XIVe siècle, entre 200 et 250 habitants, vivant essentiellement grâce à l'agriculture et à l'élevage. Les exploitations agricoles produisent surtout du froment, qui constitue l'alimentation principale des villageois. Le bétail comprend principalement des moutons, alors que certains Montalionais sont aussi bergers de transhumance et conduisent tous les ans des milliers d'ovins vers les pâtures d'hivernage du Lauragais et de Catalogne. L'artisanat, peu développé, est surtout destiné à un usage local. À Montaillou, la famille constitue la cellule de base, souvent incarnée à travers la pérennité d'une maison, l'ensemble étant appelé domus ou ostal. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie s'intéresse également à l'enfance, aux femmes, aux croyances villageoises, et décrit les lieux de la sociabilité masculine ou féminine. Enfin, il se penche sur la religion des habitants de ce village bien isolé qui offre un terrain favorable à la prédication, à partir de 1300, de missionnaires cathares. Les registres fournissent des renseignements précieux sur l'un des derniers foyers du catharisme en France. Les hérétiques de Montaillou sont, pour la plupart, de simples croyants, mais à diverses reprises est mentionné le nom de « parfaits ». Ces derniers constituent l'élite cathare : ils mènent une vie très austère et doivent administrer aux fidèles parvenus à leurs derniers instants le consolamentum, qui les réconcilie et sauve leur âme. En ce début du XIVe siècle, ils doivent se cacher, en raison des enquêtes menées par l'évêque de Pamiers, dont les sentences peuvent être diverses, allant de la simple confiscation de biens à l'emprisonnement ou encore à l'envoi sur le bûcher.
Montalembert (Charles Forbes, comte de),
homme politique (Londres 1810 - Paris 1870).
Fils d'un aristocrate français et d'une Écossaise protestante, le futur chef du catholicisme libéral s'engage à 20 ans aux côtés de Lamennais et de Lacordaire dans le combat du journal l'Avenir pour la liberté de conscience, de la presse et de l'enseignement, la séparation de l'Église et de l'État, et les causes de l'indépendance belge et de la Pologne opprimée. Il accompagne Lamennais et Lacordaire à Rome durant l'hiver 1832 et se soumet à la condamnation des thèses de l'Avenir par le pape Grégoire XVI (encyclique Mirari vos, 15 août 1832). Admis en 1835 à la Chambre des pairs à titre héréditaire, il s'y fait l'orateur du « parti catholique » et soutient dans les années 1840 la liberté d'enseignement contre le monopole universitaire de l'État. Rallié en 1848 à la République, il est élu député aux Assemblées constituante et législative, et rejoint le parti de l'Ordre ; il contribue à faire voter la loi Falloux (1850) sur l'enseignement secondaire. Rallié au coup d'État du 2 décembre 1851, député au Corps législatif jusqu'en 1857, il s'éloigne cependant rapidement du régime et s'oppose - par ses discours à l'Académie française (où il a été élu en 1851) ou par ses articles dans les colonnes du Correspondant - à la politique « italienne » de Napoléon III comme au catholicisme intransigeant de Louis Veuillot. Il publie une somme historique sur les Moines d'Occident depuis saint Benoît jusqu'à saint Bernard (1860-1867). Ses positions sur la liberté de conscience (qu'il exprime au congrès de Malines en 1863) sont condamnées par le Syllabus des erreurs modernes, opuscule du pape Pie IX publié en même temps que l'encyclique Quanta cura, le 8 décembre 1864.
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