L'étude de la protohistoire soulève ainsi, par-delà la simple description chronologique, une interrogation majeure : l'évolution de ces sociétés vers des formes d'organisation de plus en plus complexes n'est-elle pas un processus heurté, dépourvu du caractère mécanique et de la linéarité qu'on serait naïvement tenté de lui attribuer ?
proto-industrie.
Ce concept, introduit en 1972 par l'Allemand F. Mendels, désigne celles des activités industrielles des XVIIe-XIXe siècles qui paraissent faciliter le passage à l'industrie mécanisée et à main-d'œuvre concentrée des XIXe et XXe siècles.
Textiles pour l'essentiel, elles prennent majoritairement la forme des « manufactures » dispersées dans des milliers de foyers ruraux. Elles sont parfois présentes depuis le Moyen Âge mais se ruralisent davantage à la faveur de la croissance des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, afin d'exploiter des ressources naturelles comme l'eau claire (coutellerie de Langres, textile du Nord-Ouest) ou le bois et le fer (forges), mais surtout parce qu'on trouve dans les campagnes une main-d'œuvre bon marché et dépourvue de l'encadrement corporatif des métiers urbains. Cependant, la naissance d'une proto-industrie suppose quelques conditions précises : une organisation d'ensemble de la production qui articule le travail (à façon et à domicile) des ruraux et celui des ouvriers urbains (employés à plein temps dans des ateliers) ; un écoulement des produits qui se libère de la conjoncture locale, à l'horizon d'un plus large marché ; et, pour nourrir les ruraux détournés des travaux agricoles, une agriculture qui fournit des surplus valorisés par un commerce efficace.
La proto-industrialisation revêt diverses formes. Il arrive qu'un négoce dynamique provoque l'essor de fabrications rurales traditionnelles : ainsi, les toiles de lin de l'Ouest (Bretagne, Maine), exportées par les ports atlantiques ; les draps du Languedoc, qui transitent par Marseille ; l'horlogerie de Franche-Comté ; ou encore la métallurgie de Haute-Normandie, qui domine, avec celle du Forez, la quincaillerie française. Il arrive aussi que marchands et marchands-fabricants procèdent à des délocalisations - de la ville vers la campagne. Ils se procurent la matière première (disponible sur place ou importée), distribuent le travail et commercialisent les productions. Souvent, la finition est assurée en ville. Ainsi, on compte à Beauvais cinq cents métiers drapants au début du XVIIIe siècle, mais plus de cinq mille dans le plat pays, qui travaillent, pour un marché européen les laines du Bassin parisien, du Berry, d'Espagne. Enfin, l'impulsion donnée depuis la fin du XVIIe siècle au nouveau textile cotonnier par des marchands ou manufacturiers (Rouen-Pays de Caux), par des états provinciaux (Vivarais), par l'État (Beaujolais) ou par une coalition d'intérêts (entrepreneurs-État, dans le Bugey), crée une activité qui n'existait ni en ville, ni à la campagne.
Proudhon (Pierre Joseph),
théoricien socialiste (Besançon 1809 - Paris 1865).
Les origines de Proudhon - une mère cuisinière et servante, un père garçon tonnelier - sont nettement plébéiennes. Après avoir dû interrompre de brillantes études au collège de Besançon, il devient ouvrier typographe mais parvient à obtenir, sur le tard, son baccalauréat. Il accumule les connaissances les plus diverses grâce à un nombre considérable de lectures. C'est dans le cadre des concours lancés par l'académie de Besançon qu'il se fait connaître, en 1840, par son brûlot Qu'est-ce que la propriété ? Deux ans plus tard, ses écrits le conduisent devant la cour d'assises du Doubs, qui l'acquitte. Le « premier Proudhon », celui d'avant 1848, est d'abord critique et moraliste : il dénonce la propriété comme « injuste » parce qu'« injustifiable ». Encore sait-il y reconnaître des vertus, par un cheminement dialectique qui rend sa pensée parfois déroutante ou contradictoire : la machine ou la concurrence disposent ainsi d'un bon et d'un mauvais côté. Il n'appartient donc à aucune école socialiste et devient rapidement l'un des principaux adversaires de Karl Marx, qui oppose à sa Philosophie de la misère (1846) une Misère de la philosophie. Mais l'audience de celui qui a décidé de consacrer sa vie « à l'émancipation de ses frères et compagnons » est grande parmi le petit peuple. Le « deuxième Proudhon » tente d'apporter des réponses, certes toujours difficiles à systématiser. Élu à l'Assemblée constituante de 1848, il propose le financement d'une banque accessible au peuple, mais le projet est refusé. Il est incarcéré, pour délit de presse, de 1849 à 1852.
Après sa libération, il refuse d'entrer en lutte contre le Second Empire. Il tente même de se faire entendre de Louis Napoléon en lui présentant son projet de « banque du peuple ». La tentative s'avère vaine. Il se consacre alors au développement de son œuvre en publiant de très nombreux écrits, parmi lesquels De la justice dans la révolution et dans l'Église (1858) - qui lui vaut une nouvelle condamnation, à laquelle il échappe en s'enfuyant en Belgique - et Du principe fédératif (1863). À la différence de bien des socialistes de son temps, Proudhon s'y révèle plus préoccupé des problèmes de l'échange que de ceux de la production. Sa volonté de faire disparaître l'État en le remplaçant par une fédération de « compagnies ouvrières », comme son abstentionnisme en matière électorale, en font l'un des pères de l'anarchie en dépit de ses positions très conservatrices à l'égard de la famille et de la place des femmes dans la société.
Provence,
appellation courante des comtés de Provence et de Forcalquier, annexés en 1481 au royaume de France.
Seules ses limites méridionales (la mer) et occidentales (le bas-Rhône) ont été à peu près stables, à la différence des limites orientales et surtout septentrionales. Les six départements constituant aujourd'hui la région Provence-Alpes-Côtes d'Azur (PACA) correspondent à peu près à l'ancienne Provence du XVe siècle.
Des limites mouvantes.
• La région commence à s'individualiser au néolithique. Elle entre dans l'histoire au VIe siècle avant J.-C., avec les peuplades celto-ligures et les Phocéens de Marseille. Les Romains l'intègrent à un vaste ensemble, étendu des Alpes aux Pyrénées - la Narbonnaise -, qui se fragmente aux premiers siècles de l'ère chrétienne. Durant le haut Moyen Âge, la Provence est un royaume englobant la région lyonnaise et le Dauphiné, puis un marquisat limité vers le nord à une ligne Viviers-Embrun. Elle devient enfin un comté, aux limites variables, qui perd provisoirement les terres de Forcalquier (1125-1209) et la vallée de l'Ubaye (1388-1714), et définitivement le comté de Nice (1388), le Comtat Venaissin (1215), Avignon (1348), les terres delphinales du Nord (XIIIe-XVe siècle). C'est seulement en 1960 que la création de la région PACA permet la réintégration de ces territoires.
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