La fidélité au catholicisme dans la France rurale se caractérise ainsi par une distribution périphérique qui privilégie les marges de l'Ouest, du Nord-Ouest, de l'Est, du sud-est du Massif central et de l'extrême Sud-Ouest, par rapport à l'ensemble plus ou moins profondément déchristianisé du grand Bassin parisien, prolongé par le Limousin et l'Aquitaine, et, dans une moindre mesure, par la Provence. La publication des Matériaux Boulard, entreprise depuis 1982 à l'échelle des grandes régions françaises, ainsi que la convergence d'autres enquêtes contribuent à faire de la carte religieuse de la France un formidable instrument d'investigation et de questionnement.
Pourquoi y a-t-il eu déchristianisation ? Depuis quand ? Et comment rendre compte de telles disparités géographiques ? Depuis plusieurs décennies, la Carte Boulard invite les historiens à une recherche rétrospective qui s'efforce de dater, quantifier et cartographier le phénomène en fonction des sources disponibles et de suggérer des interprétations. Ainsi, la distribution périphérique des dynamiques du catholicisme français a-t-elle été tour à tour vérifiée, pour le XIXe siècle, par des indices aussi divers que le recrutement des prêtres, des religieux et des religieuses, les dons à l'Œuvre de la propagation de la foi, la demande d'indulgences en cour de Rome ou le recrutement des zouaves pontificaux. La confrontation cartographique la plus saisissante est celle établie par l'historien américain Timothy Tackett à partir des statistiques du serment imposé en 1791 au clergé paroissial lors de la mise en place de la Constitution civile du clergé. Prêtres constitutionnels et prêtres réfractaires occupent, à peu de chose près, l'espace des futures régions déchristianisées et fidèles des XIXe et XXe siècles : la Bretagne et l'Ouest intérieur, la Flandre, la Franche-Comté, les hautes terres du Massif central, le Pays basque, sont massivement réfractaires, quand le Bassin parisien, la Bourgogne, le Limousin, la Provence, s'engagent non moins massivement dans l'Église « nationale » et « régénérée » mise en place par l'Assemblée constituante. Le choix effectué par le clergé à l'aube de la Révolution sera ensuite consacré par la déchristianisation de l'an II (émigration ou persécution des réfractaires d'une part, déprêtrisation des constitutionnels de l'autre).
L'État, sa politique religieuse et ses doctrines ont ainsi pesé lourd dans les fidélités ou les détachements religieux : c'est dans les régions tardivement agrégées à l'espace français que la déchristianisation semble, dans le long terme, avoir été en définitive la plus faible.
décime,
imposition sur les revenus des biens ecclésiastiques, établie par le pape Clément III en 1188 afin de financer la troisième croisade.
Pour en fixer le montant, il faut connaître le revenu annuel et les charges, car le titulaire d'un bénéfice doit payer non pas la dixième partie de tous ses revenus bruts, mais la dixième partie après déduction des charges. L'estimation est faite par les agents du fisc pontifical, et la perception, assurée par des agents spéciaux, les collecteurs.
D'exceptionnelle à l'origine, la décime tend à devenir, dans le courant du XIIIe siècle, un impôt plus ou moins régulier, que le renforcement de la centralisation pontificale et les besoins financiers sans cesse accrus semblent justifier. Les souverains pontifes peuvent ainsi décréter de lever une ou plusieurs décimes pour une ou plusieurs années. Mais il leur arrive aussi, pour diminuer les charges du clergé, et en tenant compte de l'appauvrissement des temporels, d'accorder détaxes ou exemptions : en 1363, Urbain V réduit de moitié la décime de certains diocèses du royaume de France, une mesure qu'étendra Grégoire XI en 1372-1374. Impôt papal, la décime est fréquemment concédée aux souverains pour qu'ils mènent diverses entreprises. Mais il arrive que ceux-ci la lèvent sans en référer au pape, provoquant ainsi une grave crise - par exemple, en 1296-1298, entre Philippe le Bel et Boniface VIII. À partir de la seconde moitié du XVIe siècle, les assemblées du clergé de France votent le « contrat de décime », c'est-à-dire la taxe « accordée » au roi, en réalité à sa demande, et pour laquelle une entente a été préalablement conclue. Son montant annuel s'élève à 1,3 million de livres. Dès 1621, le roi exige une subvention supplémentaire : le « don gratuit ». La Constitution civile du clergé mettra fin à ce système en 1790.
décolonisation
La dislocation de l'empire colonial français a suivi de peu la Seconde Guerre mondiale.
Entre 1945 et 1962, la France renonce à sa souveraineté sur la majeure partie de ses possessions hors d'Europe. Elle conserve pourtant les départements et territoires d'outre-mer, et une vaste zone d'influence en Afrique.
Le fragile apogée de l'empire colonial
Les lendemains de la Seconde Guerre mondiale apparaissent, à la fois, comme l'apogée et le commencement de la fin de l'empire colonial. Après une tentative pour lui donner une organisation constitutionnelle durable sous le nom d'« Union française », en 1945 et 1946, celui-ci a été miné par une succession ininterrompue de conflits sanglants, entre 1945 et 1962 : guerre d'Indochine (1946-1954), troubles en Tunisie et au Maroc (1952-1955), guerre d'Algérie (1954-1962). Cependant, la politique française a su évoluer assez tôt pour émanciper les pays d'Afrique noire sans crise majeure.
La Seconde Guerre mondiale a simultanément parachevé le ralliement de l'opinion publique française à l'idée coloniale, et déclenché un processus inéluctable de décolonisation.
Plus encore que le premier, le second conflit mondial a démontré l'importance de l'empire pour la puissance française. Durant « la drôle de guerre », l'empire se prépare à jouer le même rôle que pendant la Grande Guerre : un réservoir d'hommes (soldats et travailleurs), de produits et de capitaux. Puis l'invasion allemande du 10 mai 1940 et l'entrée en guerre de l'Italie, le 10 juin, en font un enjeu stratégique et politique majeur. L'éventualité de prolonger la Résistance, après l'occupation de la métropole, en transférant en Afrique du Nord le siège du pouvoir politique et le maximum de moyens militaires (aviation, flotte, troupes terrestres) venant étoffer les forces coloniales, divise le gouvernement de Paul Reynaud. Quand Pétain demande et accepte l'armistice (signé le 22 juin 1940 avec l'Allemagne, et le 24 juin avec l'Italie), il se conforme à l'idée que quitter la métropole reviendrait à déserter le territoire national : le maréchal considère l'empire comme une possession de la France, et non comme la « France d'outre-mer ».
>
We Care About Your Privacy
We and our 887 partners store and access personal data, like browsing data or unique identifiers, on your device. Selecting "I Accept" enables tracking technologies to support the purposes shown under "we and our partners process data to provide," whereas selecting "Reject All" or withdrawing your consent will disable them. If trackers are disabled, some content and ads you see may not be as relevant to you. You can resurface this menu to change your choices or withdraw consent at any time by clicking the ["privacy preferences"] link on the bottom of the webpage [or the floating icon on the bottom-left of the webpage, if applicable]. Your choices will have effect within our Website. For more details, refer to our Privacy Policy.
We and our partners process data to provide:
Use precise geolocation data. Actively scan device characteristics for identification. Store and/or access information on a device. Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development.
About Your Privacy
Your Privacy
Targeting Cookies
Functional Cookies
Performance Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Store and/or access information on a device 718 partners can use this purpose
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 854 partners can use this purpose
Use precise geolocation data 271 partners can use this special feature
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 139 partners can use this special feature
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 551 partners can use this special purpose
Deliver and present advertising and content 553 partners can use this special purpose
Match and combine data from other data sources 391 partners can use this feature
Link different devices 347 partners can use this feature
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 523 partners can use this feature
Save and communicate privacy choices 376 partners can use this special purpose
Your Privacy
We process your data to deliver content or advertisements and measure the delivery of such content or advertisements to extract insights about our website. We share this information with our partners on the basis of consent. You may exercise your right to consent, based on a specific purpose below or at a partner level in the link under each purpose. Some vendors may process your data based on their legitimate interests, which does not require your consent. You cannot object to tracking technologies placed to ensure security, prevent fraud, fix errors, or deliver and present advertising and content, and precise geolocation data and active scanning of device characteristics for identification may be used to support this purpose. This exception does not apply to targeted advertising. These choices will be signaled to our vendors participating in the Transparency and Consent Framework.
More information
Targeting Cookies
These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising.
Functional Cookies
These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then some or all of these services may not function properly.
Performance Cookies
These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Always Active
These cookies are necessary for the website to function and cannot be switched off in our systems. They are usually only set in response to actions made by you which amount to a request for services, such as setting your privacy preferences, logging in or filling in forms. You can set your browser to block or alert you about these cookies, but some parts of the site will not then work. These cookies do not store any personally identifiable information.
Store and/or access information on a device 718 partners can use this purpose
Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers, randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes presented here.
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 854 partners can use this purpose
Use limited data to select advertising 668 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
Create profiles for personalised advertising 533 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit, content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by this and other entities.
Use profiles to select personalised advertising 531 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects.
Create profiles to personalise content 238 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests, such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
Use profiles to select personalised content 212 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects. This can for example be used to adapt the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
Measure advertising performance 775 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
Measure content performance 388 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g. reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance, whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources 489 partners can use this purpose
Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising) content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain contents).
Develop and improve services 582 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
Use limited data to select content 144 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
Use precise geolocation data 271 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500 metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 139 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 551 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery of content and ads and in your interaction with them.
Deliver and present advertising and content 553 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.
Match and combine data from other data sources 391 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Link different devices 347 partners can use this feature
Always Active
In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet connection on both devices).
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 523 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the purposes exposed in this notice.
Save and communicate privacy choices 376 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
The choices you make regarding the purposes and entities listed in this notice are saved and made available to those entities in the form of digital signals (such as a string of characters). This is necessary in order to enable both this service and those entities to respect such choices.
