• Lorsque la couronne leur échoit, les Capétiens ne disposent que d'un pouvoir limité à la seule Île-de-France. Si le sacrement leur confère une légitimité, ils ne sont toutefois pas en mesure d'imposer leur autorité aux princes territoriaux. Après 1020, les grands du royaume cessent de fréquenter la cour, et l'entourage des souverains est désormaisréduit à la noblesse du domaine royal. Robert le Pieux (996/1031) peut encore mener une politique à l'échelle du royaume tout entier, mais ce n'est plus le cas de son fils Henri Ier (1031/1060), ni de son petit-fils Philippe Ier (1060/1108). Ce repli politique et géographique devient cependant un atout pour la royauté, qui trouve dans la noblesse du domaine une force de combat de première envergure, dévouée à son service. Cette aristocratie constitue également l'ossature d'un personnel de gouvernement très sûr et, le plus souvent, compétent. Au XIIe siècle, les rois acquièrent les moyens d'une politique offensive et parviennent à soumettre les petits seigneurs rebelles des environs de Paris : ainsi, pendant plusieurs années, Louis VI (1108/1137) s'attache à réduire les sires de Montlhéry. De cette difficile acquisition d'une base territoriale à la fois homogène et prospère naissent les conditions d'une expansion lente mais continue. Le règne de Philippe Auguste (1180/1223) en constitue le tournant.
Le renforcement des institutions.
• Face à la menace des rois d'Angleterre, également ducs de Normandie et comtes d'Anjou depuis le milieu du XIIe siècle, Philippe Auguste parvient, par la guerre et par une utilisation habile du droit féodal, à démanteler les possessions anglaises en France, restituant à la couronne l'essentiel des possessions des Plantagenêts : la Normandie et l'Anjou sont ainsi rattachés au domaine en 1203. En outre, la croisade des albigeois lui permet de s'emparer du comté de Toulouse et de revenir en force dans une France méridionale qui, depuis le Xe siècle, s'est tenue à l'écart du royaume. Enfin, la victoire de Bouvines en 1214 met un frein aux revendications impériales. Du règne de ce souverain date également la première ébauche d'un État par la spécialisation des fonctions à l'intérieur de la curia regis, et par l'émergence de véritables institutions. Ces progrès sont davantage perceptibles durant le règne de Saint Louis (1226/1270). Ce dernier s'emploie à réformer l'administration du domaine et à perfectionner les institutions judiciaires du royaume. Philippe III le Hardi (1270/1285) et, surtout, Philippe IV le Bel (1285/1314) perfectionnent encore les organes de gouvernement. L'entourage du roi est désormais composé d'un personnel bien formé aux disciplines du droit, et les légistes du roi de France, tels Guillaume de Nogaret ou Enguerran de Marigny, constituent l'un des atouts de sa puissance. Aucun des trois fils de Philippe IV le Bel - Louis X le Hutin, (1314/1316), Philippe V le Long (1316/1322), Charles IV le Bel (1322/1328) - n'ayant eu d'enfant mâle, la mort d'un roi de France entraîne, pour la première fois depuis le Xe siècle, une crise de succession : la lignée directe des Capétiens s'éteint. Commence alors le règne des Valois, branche issue du frère de Philippe IV, Charles de Valois. Il durera jusqu'à l'assassinat d'Henri III, en 1589.
capitation,
impôt direct, instauré en 1695, visant l'ensemble des Français (toutes les « têtes », du latin caput), et aboli en 1791.
L'état calamiteux des finances lors de la guerre de la Ligue d'Augsbourg conduit Louis XIV à établir, par la déclaration du 18 janvier 1695, une capitation générale, appelée à disparaître « trois mois après la publication de la paix ». Il s'agit alors d'un impôt de quotité : un tarif, dans lequel les historiens François Bluche et Jean-François Solnon ont vu « la véritable hiérarchie sociale de l'ancienne France » répartit les sujets, à l'exception notable des ecclésiastiques, en 22 classes subdivisées en 569 rangs, selon un subtil dégradé de la dignité, du pouvoir, de la fortune et de la considération. Les « capités » de la première classe, dont le dauphin et les princes du sang, sont taxés 2 000 livres ; ceux de la vingt-deuxième, seulement 1 livre. Supprimée en mars 1698, la capitation est rétablie, le 12 mars 1701, sous la forme d'un impôt de répartition : le contrôle général assigne à chaque province une somme réévaluée d'un quart par rapport au produit de 1695-1698. Les pays d'états ne tardent pas à s'abonner, et le clergé se rachète définitivement en versant 24 millions de livres en 1710 ; les cours de justice, communautés de métiers et autres corps sont imposés en bloc, à charge de répartir leur contingent entre leurs membres ; quant à la noblesse, elle se voit relativement ménagée, malgré le doublement de la cote des non-taillables en 1760 et 1763. En 1789, la capitation rapporte au Trésor royal 41 235 934 livres, contre 22 712 980 lors de sa création.
capitulaires impériaux,
décrets divisés en petits chapitres (du latin capitulum) dus aux monarques francs, plus particulièrement aux empereurs carolingiens.
Les capitulaires peuvent compléter des lois : ils expriment alors le pouvoir législatif du souverain et sont le fruit, lors de la tenue du plaid général, d'une procédure de consultation qui leur assure une valeur perpétuelle. Ils peuvent également être indépendants d'elles et traduisent, dans ce cas, le pouvoir de commandement du roi (bannum) : ils sont alors revêtus de la seule signature de leur auteur et n'ont d'autorité que durant son règne.
Rares sous les Mérovingiens, les capitulaires se sont multipliés sous les Carolingiens pour devenir les principaux outils du gouvernement impérial : à ce titre, le capitulaire de villis, relatif à l'administration du domaine, ou les capitula missorum, chargés des instructions données aux missi dominici, sont restés célèbres. Ces textes demeurent épars jusqu'à ce qu'en 827 soit entreprise une première compilation. Due à l'initiative privée de l'abbé de Saint-Wandrille, Anségise, elle réunit vingt-neuf capitulaires attribués à Charlemagne et à Louis le Pieux, classés en quatre livres selon l'auteur des textes collationnés et les matières (ecclésiastiques ou séculières) concernées. En raison de sa commodité, l'ouvrage connaît un réel succès. Il est utilisé au palais à l'instar d'un recueil officiel. Dans les années 850 paraît une nouvelle collection. Son auteur, Benoît le Lévite, prétendument diacre de l'église de Mayence, dit avoir travaillé sur ordre de son évêque pour compléter l'œuvre d'Anségise grâce aux documents conservés dans son église. Reçue au IXe siècle comme l'indispensable complément du premier recueil, cette compilation est aujourd'hui connue sous le nom de « faux capitulaires » ; l'existence de son auteur est même mise en doute. S'y mêlent indistinctement textes originaux et apocryphes dans le but évident de renforcer la hiérarchie interne de l'Église tout en la protégeant de l'emprise des laïcs, d'autant que au lendemain du partage de Verdun (843) les menaces pesant sur le pouvoir royal renforcent les appétits aristocratiques.
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