Plusieurs facteurs semblent avoir contribué à une telle élaboration légendaire. D'abord, elle participe du mythe de l'âge d'or portant avec son écume brillante les raisons mêmes de son déclin : les âges d'or sont toujours crépusculaires ; vers 1890, personne n'aurait songé à revendiquer son appartenance à une « belle époque » ; en revanche, l'expression « fin de siècle », alors largement répandue, suscitait elle-même sa propre imagerie et dévoilait ses hantises. Ensuite, des motifs - « l'Expo », la « fée électricité », « l'aéroplane » ou « l'année 1900 » - constituent quelques-unes des représentations à forte charge symbolique facilitant l'assimilation collective du caractère heureux, voire frivole, de la Belle Époque, saisie à la fois dans son dynamisme novateur et dans sa désuétude. Cette condensation se retrouve également dans les traces toujours perceptibles qu'a laissées la période : la tour Eiffel, les ferronneries « nouille » des stations de métro de Guimard, les affiches de Mucha, définissent et figent un style, l'Art nouveau, au mépris d'autres formes élaborées conjointement. Enfin, l'usage généralisé de la photographie et de la carte postale, à partir de 1889, et l'invention du disque phonographique (1893) et du Cinématographe (1895) permettent, pour la première fois dans l'histoire, d'enregistrer et de conserver durablement les empreintes du temps. Celles-ci sont rétrospectivement perçues comme des chromos nostalgiques couleur sépia, étranges par leurs images aux mouvements saccadés et leurs voix nasillardes. Ainsi, parce qu'ils coïncident avec l'ère de la reproduction technique, les poncifs de 1900 s'alimentent au moins autant aux archives traditionnelles de la mémoire qu'à ces sources jusqu'alors inconnues, offertes non plus seulement au chercheur mais au plus grand nombre ; expliquant par là même, quoique en partie seulement, la popularité du mythe de la Belle Époque.
Belleville (programme de),
programme républicain présenté par Léon Gambetta à Belleville, à l'occasion des élections du 23 mai 1869.
Candidat dans la première circonscription de la Seine, Gambetta expose sous le titre Cahier de mes électeurs et Réponse au cahier un « programme démocratique radical » fondé sur le respect des libertés fondamentales. Ce programme, qui passe pour la première charte du radicalisme, a été rédigé par des militants, conformément « au droit et à la tradition des premiers jours de la Révolution française ».
Invoqué à de multiples reprises par la suite, ce texte est une critique violente du cléricalisme - exigeant la suppression du budget des cultes, la séparation de l'Église et de l'État - et appelle à la suppression des armées permanentes. Dans le domaine des libertés publiques, ses ambitions sont vastes et diverses : « abrogation de la loi de sûreté générale », « liberté de la presse [...] débarrassée du timbre et du cautionnement », « liberté de réunion », « abrogation de l'article 291 du Code pénal » promulgué en 1810, renforcé en 1834, qui déclarait illicites les associations réunissant plus de vingt personnes. En d'autres termes, les grandes lois du ministère Jules Ferry de 1881 - loi sur les réunions publiques, loi sur la presse - ainsi que la loi du 1er juillet 1901 sur les associations trouvent ici leur inspiration. À ces propositions en faveur du respect des libertés fondamentales s'ajoute le souci de créer une « instruction primaire laïque, gratuite et obligatoire », qui annonce les lois scolaires de juin 1881 - sur la gratuité de l'enseignement primaire - et de mars 1882 - déclarant l'enseignement obligatoire et laïque. Concernant les problèmes sociaux et économiques, le programme de Belleville se montre en revanche beaucoup plus vague et prudent : en réponse aux vœux de ses électeurs, Gambetta souhaite « la suppression des gros traitements et des cumuls », « la modification du système d'impôts » et des réformes économiques afin de « faire disparaître l'antagonisme social ». Ainsi, priorité est donnée aux réformes politiques dont dépendent, selon Gambetta, les réformes sociales ultérieures.
Ben Barka (affaire),
enlèvement, le 29 octobre 1965, d'un opposant au gouvernement marocain, exilé à Paris.
Mehdi Ben Barka, né à Rabat en 1920, milite, dès 1944, au sein du parti de l'Istiqlal, pour l'indépendance du Maroc. Révolutionnaire et légaliste, tribun proche du petit peuple, il devient, après l'accession à l'indépendance, en 1956, président de l'Assemblée consultative marocaine. En désaccord avec le gouvernement, il crée en 1959 un parti d'opposition, l'Union nationale des forces populaires (UNFP). Accusé de complot contre le prince héritier, il s'exile et ne rentre au Maroc qu'en mai 1962, après un appel à la réconciliation lancé par Hassan II, devenu roi. Quelques mois plus tard, en novembre, après avoir échappé à un attentat, il s'exile de nouveau. Ayant pris parti, lors de la « guerre des sables », pour l'Algérie contre le Maroc, il est condamné à mort par contumace dans son pays. Le 29 octobre 1965, il est enlevé à Paris, en plein Saint-Germain-des-Prés, devant la brasserie Lipp : il serait tombé dans un piège tendu par le ministre de l'Intérieur du Maroc, le général Oufkir. L'aide apportée au gouvernement marocain par certains membres de la police française et du « milieu » est avérée. L'information judiciaire ouverte à Paris après cet enlèvement aboutit, en juin 1967, à la condamnation du général Oufkir à la réclusion criminelle à perpétuité par contumace. Mais l'affaire Ben Barka, qui envenima un temps les relations franco-marocaines, reste encore entourée de zones d'ombre.
bénédictins,
moines cénobites qui suivent la règle rédigée, au VIe siècle, par saint Benoît de Nursie.
Préconisant la discretio (modération), l'équilibre entre la prière, le travail manuel et la lectio divina (lecture et méditation de la Bible), et insistant sur l'obéissance et l'humilité, cette règle se diffuse dès le VIIe siècle. Elle ne prévoit pas l'union de monastères, chaque communauté demeurant autonome. En 817, pour rétablir l'observance, Benoîtd'Aniane propose un commentaire de cette règle, qui l'infléchit dans le sens de la liturgie ; mais son projet de réunir au sein d'un ordre unique tous les monastères de l'Empire carolingien n'aboutit pas.
>
We Care About Your Privacy
We and our 868 partners store and access personal data, like browsing data or unique identifiers, on your device. Selecting "I Accept" enables tracking technologies to support the purposes shown under "we and our partners process data to provide," whereas selecting "Reject All" or withdrawing your consent will disable them. If trackers are disabled, some content and ads you see may not be as relevant to you. You can resurface this menu to change your choices or withdraw consent at any time by clicking the ["privacy preferences"] link on the bottom of the webpage [or the floating icon on the bottom-left of the webpage, if applicable]. Your choices will have effect within our Website. For more details, refer to our Privacy Policy.
We and our partners process data to provide:
Use precise geolocation data. Actively scan device characteristics for identification. Store and/or access information on a device. Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development.
About Your Privacy
Your Privacy
Targeting Cookies
Functional Cookies
Performance Cookies
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Store and/or access information on a device 707 partners can use this purpose
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 834 partners can use this purpose
Use precise geolocation data 266 partners can use this special feature
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 135 partners can use this special feature
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 536 partners can use this special purpose
Deliver and present advertising and content 542 partners can use this special purpose
Match and combine data from other data sources 381 partners can use this feature
Link different devices 339 partners can use this feature
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 511 partners can use this feature
Save and communicate privacy choices 358 partners can use this special purpose
Your Privacy
We process your data to deliver content or advertisements and measure the delivery of such content or advertisements to extract insights about our website. We share this information with our partners on the basis of consent. You may exercise your right to consent, based on a specific purpose below or at a partner level in the link under each purpose. Some vendors may process your data based on their legitimate interests, which does not require your consent. You cannot object to tracking technologies placed to ensure security, prevent fraud, fix errors, or deliver and present advertising and content, and precise geolocation data and active scanning of device characteristics for identification may be used to support this purpose. This exception does not apply to targeted advertising. These choices will be signaled to our vendors participating in the Transparency and Consent Framework.
More information
Targeting Cookies
These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising.
Functional Cookies
These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then some or all of these services may not function properly.
Performance Cookies
These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance.
Strictly Necessary Cookies
Always Active
These cookies are necessary for the website to function and cannot be switched off in our systems. They are usually only set in response to actions made by you which amount to a request for services, such as setting your privacy preferences, logging in or filling in forms. You can set your browser to block or alert you about these cookies, but some parts of the site will not then work. These cookies do not store any personally identifiable information.
Store and/or access information on a device 707 partners can use this purpose
Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers, randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes presented here.
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 834 partners can use this purpose
Use limited data to select advertising 651 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
Create profiles for personalised advertising 524 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit, content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by this and other entities.
Use profiles to select personalised advertising 521 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects.
Create profiles to personalise content 233 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests, such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
Use profiles to select personalised content 205 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects. This can for example be used to adapt the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
Measure advertising performance 755 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
Measure content performance 373 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g. reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance, whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources 475 partners can use this purpose
Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising) content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain contents).
Develop and improve services 564 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
Use limited data to select content 141 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
Use precise geolocation data 266 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500 metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 135 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 536 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery of content and ads and in your interaction with them.
Deliver and present advertising and content 542 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.
Match and combine data from other data sources 381 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Link different devices 339 partners can use this feature
Always Active
In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet connection on both devices).
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 511 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the purposes exposed in this notice.
Save and communicate privacy choices 358 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
The choices you make regarding the purposes and entities listed in this notice are saved and made available to those entities in the form of digital signals (such as a string of characters). This is necessary in order to enable both this service and those entities to respect such choices.