• De fait, les textes des auteurs anciens donnent des Gaulois l'image même du Barbare. Contrairement aux Romains ou aux Grecs, qui s'épilent le visage, coupent leurs cheveux et portent un vêtement ample, la toge, les Gaulois combattent nus, ou vêtus seulement de braies (un mot gaulois passé en français), gardent les cheveux longs et la barbe. Lorsque le sud de la Gaule sera conquis en 124 avant J.-C., devenant la Gaule Transalpine, on le nommera Gallia togata (« Gaule en toge »), pour l'opposer à Gallia comata (« Gaule chevelue »), encore indépendante. Des récits s'attachent à décrire combien les Gaulois mangeaient malproprement et comment ils s'enivraient, n'hésitant pas à échanger un esclave contre une seule amphore de vin ; enfin, ils se livraient à des sacrifices humains et exposaient fièrement les têtes de leurs ennemis.
Mais le IIIe siècle avant notre ère est celui de la reconquête de l'Italie du Nord par Rome, malgré bien des vicissitudes, dont l'aide apportée par les contingents gaulois à Hannibal en 218 avant J.-C. La région devient la Gaule Cisalpine, à laquelle s'ajouteront la Transalpine, conquise en 124 avant J.-C., et enfin le reste de la Gaule, soumis par César entre 58 et 51.
Pour les historiens romains, les Gaulois sont donc les Celtes occidentaux, ceux des territoires « laténiens » (de La Tène) originaires ainsi que des régions conquises par ces populations dans le monde méditerranéen occidental (Espagne, midi de la France, Italie du Nord) au cours du IVe siècle. César précise néanmoins que les Gaulois se nommaient eux-mêmes « Celtes » (Celtae), un nom que les Grecs donnaient, quant à eux, à l'ensemble des Celtes, occidentaux et orientaux. Sous l'Empire romain, le terme « Gaulois » en vient à désigner les habitants des différentes régions administratives de la Gaule - du moins ceux qui n'ont pas reçu la citoyenneté romaine. C'est cette définition qui se transmettra en français, lorsqu'on voudra voir dans la Gaule une nation homogène, ancêtre direct de la France.
Gavr'inis,
petite île du golfe du Morbihan qui a donné son nom à un dolmen datant du IVe millénaire avant notre ère. Il est l'un des plus célèbres d'Europe pour les gravures qui couvrent entièrement ses parois internes.
Le dolmen s'élève sur le point culminant de Gavr'inis (« l'île aux chèvres »), elle-même située sur la commune de Larmor-Baden (Morbihan). Il est recouvert d'un tertre de pierres sèches de configuration complexe, édifié en gradins, et dont la façade, d'une dizaine de mètres de haut, se déploie sur près de 30 mètres. Le dolmen proprement dit se compose d'un couloir de 14 mètres de long, qui débouche sur une chambre funéraire de 2,5 mètres de côté. Il est formé de vingt-sept dalles de granit, dont vingt-trois sont entièrement recouvertes de gravures très stylisées : haches, araires, arcs, lignes ondulées, signes en forme de crosse (ou de U), d'écusson. Ces dalles semblent cependant avoir été empruntées à un monument antérieur, puisque certaines comportent des dessins sur leur face non visible. Ainsi, la dalle de couverture présente une face supérieure, non visible, qui porte les gravures de deux bovidés et d'une « hache-charrue » : elle appartenait en fait à un grand menhir gravé de 14 mètres de haut qui fut brisé en trois, l'un des autres fragments recouvrant le dolmen de la « Table des marchands » à Locmariaquer ! Des objets de la période néolithique ont été découverts en abondance à l'entrée du monument : poteries, grandes haches polies, outils de quartz utilisés pour la gravure, etc.
Gavroche,
personnage de roman imaginé par Victor Hugo, et figure emblématique du gamin de Paris.
« Joie est mon caractère, c'est la faute à Voltaire / Misère est mon trousseau, c'est la faute à Rousseau » : le petit Gavroche chante à tue-tête, tandis que les coups de feu crépitent à ses oreilles. Occupé à récupérer des cartouches devant la barricade où combattent ses amis, il vit ses derniers instants. Foudroyé par une balle, il quitte tragiquement la scène des Misérables, au plus fort de l'insurrection des 5 et 6 juin 1832.
Ce personnage insouciant, courageux et gouailleur, évoque une figure familière du Paris d'hier. Il connaît la ville comme sa poche, notamment les terrains vagues et les coupe-gorge, vit aux confins de l'illégalité, et déteste les sergents de ville, qui le lui rendent bien. Gavroche est l'héritier direct des milliers de petits ramoneurs savoyards du XVIIIe siècle dépeints par Louis Sébastien Mercier, et le contemporain de tous les pauvres, qui, sous la monarchie de Juillet, souffrent du chômage, du manque d'hygiène et de l'exiguïté des logements. À cette époque, des taux de fécondité élevés contribuent à la fréquence des abandons d'enfants. Aux liens familiaux, les gamins des rues substituent des formes de sociabilité juvénile ; certains font partie de bandes organisées, sous la direction d'individus plus âgés. Le développement du contrôle social dans la capitale conduira à leur progressive disparition, mais, sous des noms divers - gavroches, titis parisiens ou poulbots -, ils restent présents dans les mémoires.
Gay-Lussac (Louis Joseph),
physicien et chimiste (Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat, Haute-Vienne, 1778 - Paris 1850).
Fils d'un procureur du roi, Gay-Lussac est reçu à Polytechnique en 1797, puis à l'École des ponts et chaussées. D'abord assistant de Berthollet, puis répétiteur des cours de Fourcroy, il consacre ses premières recherches à la dilatation des gaz, dont il détermine les lois d'évolution en fonction de la température. En 1804, deux ascensions en ballon à plus de 6 000 mètres d'altitude lui permettent de rassembler des observations hygrométriques et magnétiques. Il travaille avec Humboldt sur les lois de combinaison des gaz, et effectue avec lui, à travers l'Europe, un voyage d'études sur le magnétisme. Membre de l'Académie des sciences en 1806, il est appelé par Berthollet à la Société d'Arcueil.
En collaboration avec Thénard et Liebig, son élève, il se consacre également à l'étude de la chimie organique : ils découvrent le bore et l'acide fluoborique (1809), puis le cyanogène et l'acide prussique pur (1815). Gay-Lussac contribue ainsi à la constitution de la théorie atomique en matière organique. Il est alors professeur de physique à la Faculté des sciences et enseigne la chimie à Polytechnique.
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