La ville de « Chaux », qui devait entourer l'usine, ne sera jamais construite ; toutefois, le plan de chaque maison sera publié dans l'œuvre de Ledoux : De l'architecture considérée sous le rapport de l'art, des mœurs et de la législation (1804). Ces édifices, qui, selon lui, sont les garants de l'ordre social, présentent tous des tailles imposantes et des formes évocatrices : la maison des plaisirs, ou oïkéma, par exemple, est en forme de phallus... Révolutionnaire par ses caractéristiques fonctionnelles et par la philosophie « égalitariste » qui l'habite (« On verra sur la même échelle la magnificence de la guinguette et du palais »), cette cité reste également le froid reflet d'un certain ordre moral.
L'usine modèle a subi les assauts du vandalisme révolutionnaire et a été abandonnée ; sous Napoléon, cette forme d'architecture utopique et visionnaire n'était plus appréciée. Restaurée et aménagée par le service des Monuments historiques, la saline d'Arc-et-Senans est devenue un centre de conférences, de congrès et de recherches « futurologiques », géré et animé par la Fondation Claude Nicolas Ledoux (créée en 1972). Elle est classée au titre du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO.
archers,
soldats munis d'arc, combattant à pied dans les armées occidentales. En France, l'arc ne s'impose que fort tardivement comme arme de guerre. L'arc court, traditionnel en Occident, est en effet d'efficacité inférieure à l'arbalète.
C'est la défaite de Crécy (1346) qui met en évidence les qualités du grand arc gallois, lequel permet de décocher une dizaine de traits par minute (contre seulement deux carreaux pour l'arbalète) ; les archers anglais submergent ainsi sous leurs flèches les chevaliers français et, combinés avec la cavalerie démontée, assurent la victoire. Leur invincibilité est devenue si proverbiale qu'en 1488, à la bataille de Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier, les archers bretons se revêtent d'une croix rouge afin de se faire passer pour des Anglais ! Pourtant, les leçons de Crécy ou d'Azincourt s'imposent lentement aux stratèges français, qui méprisent ces fantassins contrevenant à une éthique guerrière fondée sur la cavalerie ; la pratique de l'archerie à cheval ne connaît en effet pas de succès en Occident. Les ordonnances successives prises par Charles VII de 1445 à 1460 organisent le corps des francs-archers, ainsi dénommés parce qu'ils bénéficient d'une exemption fiscale. Levés dans les paroisses, à raison d'un pour cinquante feux, ils remplacent avantageusement l'ancien et inefficace arrière-ban, et constituent également une extension au plat pays des confréries de gens de trait qui se sont multipliées dans les villes au XIVe siècle. Bien qu'ils ne disposent pas tous d'un arc, les francs-archers représentent l'élément essentiel d'une infanterie alors en pleine extension, au point que Louis XI en double le nombre. Mais, peu à peu, les fantassins équipés de piques ou d'arquebuses l'emportent sur les arbalétriers et les archers, qui, à la fin du XVe siècle, subissent la concurrence des redoutables mercenaires suisses.
Archives nationales,
administration créée par la Révolution française, chargée de conserver, trier, classer, inventorier et communiquer les documents relatifs à l'histoire de France.
Sous l'Ancien Régime, chaque organisme administratif ou judiciaire gère ses propres archives. Paris compte alors plus de 400 dépôts. Le 29 juillet 1789, l'Assemblée nationale constituante organise le dépôt de toutes les pièces originales relatives à ses travaux. La loi du 2 messidor an II (25 juin 1794) place les Archives nationales à la tête de l'ensemble des dépôts publics de la République. Elle prévoit le tri des titres, leur classement, la réalisation d'un inventaire sommaire et la consultation libre et gratuite. Par l'arrêté du 8 prairial an VIII (28 mai 1800), le Premier consul Bonaparte sépare définitivement les Archives nationales de l'Assemblée. C'est en 1808 qu'elles sont installées en l'hôtel de Soubise, à Paris.
La législation révolutionnaire est remise en cause par la loi du 3 janvier 1979, complétée par les décrets du 3 décembre 1979. Ces textes réorganisent les archives et en réglementent la consultation. À Paris, le Centre d'accueil et de recherche des Archives nationales regroupe : les fonds publics de l'Ancien Régime (titres féodaux, chartes et manuscrits pouvant intéresser l'histoire, les sciences, les arts ou l'instruction) ; les fonds postérieurs à 1789, issus des organes centraux de l'État ; enfin, les fonds divers, parmi lesquels les archives personnelles, d'associations, de syndicats ou d'entreprises.
Arcole (bataille d'),
combat franco-autrichien qui se déroula près de la ville italienne d'Arcole, les 15, 16 et 17 novembre 1796, lors de la première campagne d'Italie.
Alors que Bonaparte assiège Mantoue, il apprend que deux armées autrichiennes, commandées par Davidovitch et Alvinzi, sont en marche pour débloquer la ville. Il décide d'attaquer avant qu'elles aient opéré leur jonction. Il passe à l'offensive et coupe Alvinzi de ses communications arrière, tandis que Vaubois est chargé de contenir Davidovitch avec des forces inférieures en nombre. Le 15 novembre, Augereau tente, en vain, de prendre le pont d'Arcole. À la tête des grenadiers, Bonaparte essaie à son tour de s'en emparer, mais il est repoussé et manque même d'être fait prisonnier. Le lendemain, Augereau échoue de nouveau, mais Masséna enfonce les troupes autrichiennes. Au matin du 17 novembre, l'assaut général est donné : Masséna franchit le pont d'Arcole, tandis qu'Augereau fait passer ses hommes sur un pont de chevalets construit pendant la nuit. Alvinzi doit battre en retraite sur Montebello. Il était temps, car Vaubois a été enfoncé peu avant par les troupes de Davidovitch. Les Autrichiens ont perdu 7 000 hommes ; les Français, plus de 4 500.
L'épisode d'Arcole passe à la postérité grâce au tableau du baron Gros (Bonaparte au pont d'Arcole, 1798) qui représente Bonaparte, le drapeau à la main, menant ses troupes à l'assaut. La légende napoléonienne popularise cette image qui exalte la bravoure du général.
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