Bernard de Clairvaux (Bernard de Fontaine, saint), (suite)
Doté de réels talents d'écrivain, Bernard de Clairvaux rédigea plus de cinq cents lettres, ainsi que des traités : De la considération, Sur les degrés de l'humilité et de l'orgueil, Sur la grâce et le libre arbitre, Sur l'amour de Dieu, Homélies à la louange de la Vierge Mère... Son mysticisme s'exprime dans les quatre-vingt-six Sermons sur le Cantique des cantiques, ouvrage resté inachevé. Il a bénéficié d'un immense prestige et exercé une profonde influence, qui ne se limite pas au monachisme, qu'il fut tenté d'imposer comme modèle à la société. Personnalité complexe et passionnée - ce qui a pu le conduire à l'intolérance -, représentant de la théologie monastique, il n'a cependant pas toujours su saisir les évolutions du XIIe siècle. Il a été canonisé en 1174.
Bernard (Samuel),
banquier (Paris 1651 - id. 1739).
Fils d'un peintre ordinaire du roi, de confession réformée, Samuel Bernard commence sa carrière comme marchand mercier en gros. Son mariage en 1681 l'unit aux grandes familles financières d'origine protestante, même si lui-même abjure en 1685. Il devient néanmoins rapidement le banquier des protestants émigrés ou étrangers. C'est le début d'une ascension fulgurante. Après un rôle actif de traitant dans les affaires financières de la monarchie, Bernard abandonne cette activité à partir de 1701 pour être banquier de la cour, c'est-à-dire organisateur des paiements aux alliés et aux armées dans le cadre de la guerre de la Succession d'Espagne. Son crédit international assoit sa position, même si ce sont en définitive les rentrées fiscales qui garantissent le fonctionnement du système. Interlocuteur obligé pour le roi et les siens pendant quelques années, Bernard est durement touché par une banqueroute en 1709. Après une éclipse, il refait surface à l'époque de la Régence. En 1733 encore, il avance des fonds à Stanislas Leszczy[‘]nski, beau-père de Louis XV. Il s'intéresse aussi activement aux grandes compagnies de commerce maritime. Comblé d'honneurs (anobli dès 1699, il est fait comte de Coubert en 1725), Bernard meurt au faîte de la richesse et de la réussite. Il représente en son temps un cas exceptionnel d'osmose entre le monde du négoce et de la banque, et celui des financiers de la monarchie. À ce titre, il annonce, dès la fin du règne de Louis XIV, les banquiers de cour du XVIIIe siècle.
Bernard (Claude),
physiologiste (Saint-Julien, Rhône, 1813 - Paris 1878).
Monté à Paris en 1834 après avoir été employé d'officine à Lyon, il renonce à une éphémère vocation littéraire et entreprend des études de médecine. Reçu docteur en 1843, il se détourne de l'hôpital pour se consacrer à la recherche. Préparateur, puis suppléant de François Magendie au Collège de France, il lui succède en 1855 à la chaire de physiologie expérimentale. Dans ses premiers travaux, il met en évidence le rôle du suc gastrique et du pancréas dans la digestion et, surtout, la fonction glycogénique du foie, expliquant ainsi magistralement, dans sa thèse, le mécanisme du diabète sucré (Recherches sur une nouvelle fonction du foie considéré comme organe producteur de matière sucrée chez l'homme et les animaux, 1853). Dans ses leçons au Collège de France, à la faculté des sciences de Paris puis au Muséum d'histoire naturelle, il expose - recourant volontiers à la vivisection - des recherches pionnières sur la physiologie du système nerveux, la chaleur animale et les mécanismes de régulation du vivant (Leçons de physiologie expérimentale appliquée à la médecine, 1856). Ainsi se dessine le concept central de l'œuvre bernardienne, celui de « milieu intérieur » : constitué par les secrétions internes - le sang et la lymphe - et réglé par l'activité nerveuse, il offre au vivant, par sa stabilité, « une possibilité d'autonomie relativement aux variations de ses conditions d'existence dans le milieu extérieur » (Canguilhem). Quant à l'Introduction à l'étude de la médecine expérimentale (1865), elle promeut une méthode expérimentale critique, fondée sur l'idée « d'observation provoquée », sur le travail du doute et de la contre-épreuve.
L'œuvre de Claude Bernard constitue un jalon essentiel dans l'histoire de la compréhension du vivant et celle de la médecine. Elle reconnaît un déterminisme propre aux fonctions biologiques et invite à penser la maladie non plus comme une importation dans l'organisme « d'entités morbides » mais comme le dérèglement de phénomènes normaux, obéissant à des lois assignables. Affranchissant la physiologie aussi bien des réductions mécanistes d'origine cartésienne que des doctrines vitalistes (Barthez, Bichat), Claude Bernard l'institue comme la science expérimentale spécifique des corps vivants et de leur déterminisme. Zola s'en inspirera, important en littérature cet « homme physiologique » sur lequel il érigera le « système » naturaliste (le Roman expérimental, 1880).
Bernard Gui,
inquisiteur de l'évêché de Toulouse (Royère, Creuse, 1261 - Lodève, Hérault, 1331).
Entré à l'âge de 19 ans chez les Frères prêcheurs de Limoges, dans l'ordre des dominicains fondé un siècle plus tôt pour combattre les hérésies du sud de la France, il circule dans les différents couvents de l'ordre, puis devient, en 1307, prieur de Limoges et inquisiteur pour le compte du tribunal de Toulouse, charge qu'il occupe jusqu'en 1323. Ayant effectué plusieurs missions pour le pape Jean XXII, il est nommé en 1324 évêque de Lodève. Mais c'est surtout à sa charge d'inquisiteur qu'il doit sa célébrité. Il rédige en effet une Pratique de l'office d'inquisition, plus connue sous le nom de Manuel de l'inquisiteur, où il analyse les hérésies vaudoise et cathare, précise les procédures inquisitoriales et dresse un barème des peines applicables. Il semble avoir été lui-même relativement modéré dans l'exercice de l'Inquisition, livrant rarement les accusés au bras séculier de la justice, qui appliquait les peines de sang. Son Manuel paraît cependant avoir été peu employé. Auteur de plusieurs ouvrages de théologie et de liturgie, Bernard Gui est aussi un historien prolixe et honnête, un compilateur scrupuleux de documents, abondamment utilisé par les historiens de la papauté d'Avignon.
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