— Certains procédés de relief binoculaire ( RELIEF) imposent un écran ne modifiant pas la polarisation du faisceau lumineux issu du projecteur. Seuls répondent à ce critère les écrans métalliques. Toutefois, étant donné la difficulté de fabriquer de tels écrans, on a imaginé des écrans métallisés au support enduit de poudre d'aluminium qui ne « dépolarisent » que très faiblement la lumière. De fabrication et d'entretien délicats (alors que les écrans mats se nettoient simplement à l'eau savonneuse), ces écrans souffrent d'être assez directifs même s'ils le sont beaucoup moins que les écrans perlés.
Une variété particulière d'écran perlé renvoie la totalité de la lumière vers l'objectif du projecteur. On les emploie dans les trucages par projection frontale. ( EFFETS SPÉCIAUX.)
Contrairement aux cas précédents, où l'image est observée par réflexion, les écrans translucides permettent d'observer l'image par transparence, le projecteur se trouvant de l'autre côté de l'écran. Très rares dans les salles, ces écrans sont surtout employés pour les trucages par transparence. ( EFFETS SPÉCIAUX.)
ÉCU.
Abrév. anglaise de Extreme Close Up.
EDDY (Nelson)
acteur américain (Providence, R. I., 1901 - Miami, Fla., 1967).
Sa belle voix de baryton lui vaut une carrière de cinéma comme principal partenaire de Jeannette MacDonald dans des opérettes sucrées et à grand spectacle comme la Fugue de Mariette (W. S. Van Dyke, 1935) ou Rose Marie (id., 1936). Jusqu'en 1942, avec I Married an Angel (W. S. Van Dyke), au titre malencontreux, il ne se passe pas d'année sans qu'il n'y ait un film du couple. Les tentatives solitaires d'Eddy, comme le Flambeau de la liberté (Let Freedom Ring, Jack Conway, 1939) ou Balalaïka (Reinhold Sohunzel, id.), montrèrent toutefois cruellement ses limites. Il s'est retiré en 1947 et s'est consacré au cabaret.
EDENS (Roger)
compositeur et producteur américain (Hillsboro, Tex., 1905 - Los Angeles, Ca., 1970).
Bras droit d'Arthur Freed à la MGM, Roger Edens est l'un des noms essentiels de la comédie musicale américaine. D'abord pianiste, puis compositeur, il commence au cinéma en signant des chansons, notamment pour des réalisations de Roy Del Ruth : Kid Millions (1934), L'amiral mène la danse (1936) ou Broadway Melody de 1938 (1937). C'est en composant les arrangements musicaux pour le Magicien d'Oz (V. Fleming, 1939) qu'il commença sa collaboration avec Arthur Freed. Il le secondera comme producteur associé jusqu'à Tous en scène (V. Minnelli, 1953). Au passage, il supervisera la musique du Chant du Missouri (id., 1944), Yolanda et le voleur (id., 1945) ou des Demoiselles Harvey (G. Sidney, 1946), contribuant ainsi à la perfection du genre grâce à ses orchestrations joyeusement rythmées, reconnaissables entre toutes. Il composera également quelques chansons comme Moses, l'une des plus drôles de Chantons sous la pluie (S. Donen, G. Kelly, 1951). Après avoir produit en solo Au fond de mon cœur (S. Donen, 1954), il quitte la MGM mais persévère dans le genre en collaborant à Une étoile est née (G. Cukor, 1954) et en produisant Drôle de frimousse (S. Donen, 1956), un projet dont il était à l'origine à la MGM. Pour ce dernier film, il reviendra à son métier de musicien et composera encore quelques chansons en complément à la partition de Gershwin (Bonjour Paris !). Son nom restera lié au genre jusque dans ses derniers soubresauts : la Reine du Colorado (C. Walters, 1964) et Hello Dolly ! (G. Kelly, 1969).
EDESON (Arthur)
directeur de la photographie américain (New York, N. Y., 1881 - Los Angeles, Ca., 1970).
Arthur Edeson peut se prévaloir de tant de titres de gloire, qu'on ne sait vraiment quoi louer en premier : la riche imagerie de Robin des Bois (1922, Allan Dwan) ou du Voleur de Badgad (1924, Raoul Walsh) ; le sens de l'espace dans la Piste des géants (id., 1930) ; l'expressionnisme soit tragique de À l'Ouest rien de nouveau (L. Milestone, id.), soit contrasté de Frankenstein (1931), ou les gris et les blancs lumineux de l'Homme invisible (1933) de James Whale ; la quintessence du style Warner Bros (le Faucon maltais, John Huston, 1941 ; Casablanca, Michael Curtiz, 1943 ; le Masque de Dimitrios, Jean Negulesco, 1944)... S'il n'a pas un style réellement personnel, il a cependant œuvré dans le noir et blanc avec une aisance confondante.
EDGREN (Erik Gustaf)
cinéaste suédois (Östra Fågelvik 1895 - Stockholm 1954).
Il débute à l'époque des grands maîtres Sjöström et Stiller avec des films régionalistes : ’ la Demoiselle de Björneborg ’ (Fröken pa Björneborg, 1922), ’ le Maître de Trollebo ’ (Trollebokungen, 1924). Puis, metteur en scène attitré du Buster Keaton suédois, l'acteur Fridolf Rhudin, il tourne avec lui ’ le Baron fantôme ’ (Spökbaronen, 1927). Mais c'est dans ’ Karl Frederic gouverne ’ (Karl Frederik regerar, 1934) qu'il aborde le film social. Il réunit Lars Hanson, Victor Sjöström et la débutante Ingrid Bergman dans ’ la Nuit de la Saint-Jean ’ (Valborgsmässoafton, 1935), réalise plusieurs remakes dont ’ Vox populi ’ (Johan Ulfstjerna, 1936, avec Gösta Ekman) et ’ les Anciens Flirts du quartier-maître Karlsson ’ (Styrman Karlssons flammor, 1938), retrouve Victor Sjöström comme acteur principal de ’ John Ericsson ’ (1937), transpose avec talent un roman de Sally Salminen (Katrina, 1943), impose un nouveau couple de jeunes premiers (Alf Kjellin et Mai Zetterling) dans ’ Après la rosée vient la pluie ’ (Driver dagg faller regn, 1946), conte les aventures d'un cabotin égocentrique (’ Silence et discrétion ’ [En svensk tiger], 1948) et achève sa carrière en 1951, au moment où Ingmar Bergman conquiert sa renommée. Edgren restera l'homme charnière entre l'âge d'or du cinéma muet suédois et la renaissance bergmanienne. Il est en tout cas l'un de ceux qui ont accompli une honorable traversée du désert (au cours de ces années 30 où le flambeau s'éteignit soudain pour ne se rallumer que sporadiquement dans les années 40).
EDISON (Thomas Alva)
inventeur et industriel américain (Milan, Ohio, 1847 - West Orange, N. J., 1931).
Obligé de travailler dès l'âge de douze ans, il est notamment opérateur de télégraphe. Étudiant et expérimentant en dehors de ses heures de service, il prend son premier brevet neuf ans plus tard. (À la fin de sa vie, il en possédera plus de mille !) À partir de 1876, les ressources procurées par ses inventions dans le domaine de la transmission télégraphique lui permettent de se consacrer pleinement à la recherche. Il invente notamment le phonographe (1877) et la lampe électrique (1879). En 1887, il commence à s'intéresser à l'analyse et à la synthèse du mouvement, affectant à cette tâche son collaborateur Dickson. Pour assurer l'équidistance des images, Edison et Dickson ont recours à la pellicule Celluloïd encochée (1888) puis perforée (1889), et ils demandent à Eastman de leur en fournir des longueurs appréciables. (Les spécifications d'Edison — largeur du film, disposition des perforations, nombre de perforations par image — sont aujourd'hui encore celles du film 35 mm standard.) Après avoir essayé divers mécanismes d'avance intermittente, ils parviennent en 1891 au Kinetograph, la première véritable caméra de l'histoire du cinéma, et au Kinétoscope, appareil forain à défilement continu et à vision individuelle conçu pour exploiter les films du Kinetograph — Edison ne croit pas alors en l'avenir du projecteur. Commercialisé à partir de 1894, le Kinétoscope inspire de nombreux inventeurs, dont les frères Lumière. En 1896, pris de court par le succès du Cinématographe Lumière, Edison achète les droits du projecteur Armat, rebaptisé « Vitascope d'Edison », ce qui lui permet de devancer de quelques mois l'arrivée du Cinématographe dans les music-halls new-yorkais (première projection publique Edison le 23 avril 1896). La Edison Manufacturing Company crée un studio à New York et engage notamment Edwin S. Porter*, qui dirige pour elle quelques-uns des premiers films narratifs qui modernisent les conceptions du cinéma de l'époque – et sont d'immenses succès. Une longue guerre commerciale oppose Edison aux autres firmes américaines, et notamment à la Biograph, dont le projecteur a été mis au point par Dickson, qui l'a quitté en 1895, et par Lauste. Cette « guerre des brevets » s'achèvera par la constitution d'une alliance entre les principales firmes (Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Selig, Lubin, notamment, et Pathé), la Motion Picture Patents Company, connue sous le nom de Trust Edison, qui livrera aux indépendants une guerre farouche que, finalement elle perdra entre 1913 et 1918. C'est en 1918 que l'inventeur de la caméra et du film cessera toute activité cinématographique.
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