Les subventions, en modifiant les prix, créent à la longue des distorsions qui nuisent à l'efficacité du système économique : les gens ne consomment pas comme ils le feraient en l'absence de subventions, les producteurs n'investissent pas là où existe une véritable demande, et il en résulte un gaspillage de ressources rares. En URSS, le prix du pain était maintenu si bas que les paysans avaient intérêt à donner à leurs bêtes du pain plutôt que du foin.
Les États ont tendance à multiplier les subventions pour orienter l'activité économique. En France, il existe ainsi 70 types d'aides aux entreprises (aides à l'emploi, à l'aménagement du territoire, à l'investissement, à la recherche-développement, au commerce extérieur, à la restructuration des secteurs en difficulté…). Le coût total en est estimé à 170 milliards de francs, dont l'efficacité est difficile à évaluer
S. G.
➙ Politique économique, politique industrielle
Sully (Maximilien de Béthune, duc de)
Surintendant des Finances d'Henri IV, Sully (1560-1641) contribua au redressement économique de la France à la fin du xvie siècle.
Sully fut chargé de restaurer la prospérité du royaume, épuisé par une longue crise économique et un siècle de guerres civiles et extérieures. Il réforma les impôts afin de rééquilibrer les finances royales. Il fit reconstruire les routes et les ponts, et aménager des voies navigables. Il développa l'agriculture, avec l'aide de l'agronome Olivier de Serres (« Pâturage et labourage sont les deux mamelles de la France »), l'industrie textile et celle des produits de luxe, limita les importations d'articles étrangers et les exportations de matières premières utiles à la production nationale.
Ce nouveau rôle joué par l'État permit une amélioration sensible de l'économie française et annonça les politiques mercantilistes de Richelieu et de Colbert suivies au xviie siècle.
P. B.
➙ Colbertisme, France, mercantilisme
Surchauffe
Phase de croissance inflationniste provenant d'une pleine utilisation de la capacité de production.
Il s'agit d'une situation où, en raison de revenus excessifs, la demande intérieure excède l'offre, limitée par le plein-emploi et la pleine utilisation des machines disponibles. Cela débouche sur un « dérapage inflationniste » poussant les autorités à ralentir la croissance.
P. B.
Surplus
Part de la production qui n'est pas absorbée par la reconstitution des moyens de production, notamment les salaires.
Cette notion, développée par l'école classique et par Marx, vise à préciser les conditions de reproduction et d'accumulation d'un système économique. Elle est particulièrement pertinente pour l'analyse des processus de développement, dans la mesure où l'appropriation du surplus par les propriétaires terriens ou par des industriels entraînera un pays dans des voies opposées : dans le premier cas, il sera surtout consommé, dans le second, il servira davantage à accroître les moyens de production.
J.-M. F.
Surproduction
Situation caractérisée par un excès de marchandises produites par rapport à la demande solvable.
Il y a surproduction quand l'accroissement de la production est plus important que celui des revenus distribués (les salaires en particulier). Elle se traduit par une baisse des prix, qui réduit les profits et pousse les entreprises à diminuer leur production, mais aussi l'emploi et les investissements. Selon plusieurs auteurs, la surproduction explique les crises économiques
P. B.
➙ (J. A.) Hobson, (T. R.) Malthus, marxisme, (J. de) Sismondi
Swap
Mot anglais signifiant « échange ». Appelé également « contrat d'échéance », ce produit dérivé permet de se prémunir contre les évolutions défavorables de l'actif dont il dépend.
Les swaps de taux d'intérêt et de devises sont les plus courants. Deux sociétés peuvent choisir d'échanger le coût d'une dette à taux fixe contre celui d'une dette à taux variable. Dans un swap de devises, les deux parties se livrent mutuellement, lors de la conclusion du contrat d'échange, des montants en capital libellés en deux monnaies différentes et se les remboursent ultérieurement à des conditions définies d'avance. Permettant de se protéger du risque d'un taux d'intérêt variable, le swap constitue un des moyens privilégiés pour les relations financières entre banques ou entreprises
D. G.
➙ Produits dérivés
Syndicat
Les syndicats constituent une instance de négociation face aux détenteurs du pouvoir dans l'entreprise et dans les administrations publiques. À cet égard, l'existence et le développement des syndicats semblent indispensables pour limiter les prérogatives des technostructures administratives au service des actionnaires et pour introduire ainsi la « démocratie » dans l'entreprise.
Les associations syndicales de salariés sont considérées par les politologues (spécialistes des sciences politiques) comme des groupes de pression. Comme ce terme l'indique, leur fonction consiste à exercer une pression sur les autorités décisionnelles (patronat, gouvernement) de façon à orienter les choix collectifs dans un sens conforme aux intérêts de leurs adhérents (salaires, conditions de travail, promotion sociale).
Depuis plusieurs années, en France notamment, le rôle des syndicats est remis en question : d'une part, du fait du taux très faible de syndicalisation des salariés (hors secteur public) ; d'autre part, du fait de la remise en cause du « modèle français » qui se caractérisait par l'importance du secteur public (où les syndicats ont toujours été puissants) et par un système de gestion tripartite (État, patronat, syndicats) des relations sociales.
La présence syndicale dans l'entreprise
• Les délégués du personnel (DP) sont élus depuis 1936 (accords Matignon) dans les entreprises de plus de 10 salariés. Leur rôle est de servir d'intermédiaires entre l'employeur et l'ensemble des salariés. Ils présentent les revendications individuelles ou collectives à la direction de l'entreprise. Ils peuvent saisir l'inspecteur du travail en cas de différend.
• Les délégués syndicaux, au nombre de 1 à 5 dans les entreprises de plus de 50 salariés, ont pour mission de représenter le syndicat auprès du chef d'entreprise.
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