L'importance stratégique de l'innovation explique la focalisation du débat économique et des politiques publiques sur les conditions favorables à l'innovation.
L'innovation arrive rarement par hasard
Il y a d'abord les conditions propres à l'entreprise. L'innovation est une question de taille : les grandes entreprises innovent plus que les petites car elles ont la capacité d'investir dans la recherche et développement (R&D) et de supporter le risque inhérent à l'innovation. C'est aussi une question d'orga-nisation : le management est essentiel dans la capacité à articuler conception, production et marché en mobilisant des formes spécifiques d'organisation (pour produire la Twingo, Renault a mis en place une équipe projet rompant avec ses méthodes antérieures de conception).
D'autres conditions concernent l'environnement de l'entreprise sur lequel les politiques publiques peuvent agir. Au plan financier, il s'agit de mettre en place des formes de capital-risque adaptées à la couverture de ce risque particulier ainsi que des marchés spécifiques comme le NASDAQ aux États-Unis (une Bourse spécialisée dans les entreprises nouvelles à fort potentiel de croissance comme Apple, Intel ou Yahoo !). Plus largement, l'innovation est affaire de coopération entre des acteurs différents : les entreprises doivent coopérer entre elles sur une large échelle géographique mais aussi avec des laboratoires de recherche, des universités, des institutions publiques (centres de transfert ou de veille technologique par exemple). L'innovation dépend ainsi largement de la qualité des « systèmes d'innovation » existant dans chaque pays. Elle est aussi fonction de la capacité à garantir juridiquement par des brevets les bénéfices de celui qui innove, mais sans cependant empêcher toute diffusion de l'innovation dans l'économie (durée ou couverture limitées du brevet).
L'innovation dépend enfin de son adoption par l'utilisateur. À cet égard, ce n'est pas toujours la meilleure technologie qui l'emporte. L'innovation se diffusant souvent largement par effet d'imitation (j'achète pour ne pas « être en retard »), la compétition entre technologies se joue sur la capacité à être le premier à atteindre un certain seuil d'utilisateurs. C'est pourquoi il importe autant d'avoir une politique marketing et de prix agressive que d'avoir la meilleure technologie. Le constructeur d'ordinateurs Apple l'a appris à ses dépens. On voit dès lors se développer une apparente « économie de la gratuité » : les opérateurs de téléphone mobile distribuent pour 1 F des terminaux qui en valent 1 500, Microsoft offre « gratuitement » son logiciel de navigation Internet Explorer pour contrecarrer le concurrent Netscape, etc
A. R.
➙ Capital-risque, Internet, progrès technique, recherche et développement, (J. A.) Schumpeter
INSEE (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques)
Organisme public créé en 1946, ayant pour rôle principal de collecter, de traiter, d'analyser et de diffuser des données statistiques du pays dans le domaine économique et social.
L'INSEE est présent sur l'ensemble du territoire français et emploie environ 6 600 personnes. Il publie les indicateurs essentiels de l'économie nationale tels que les comptes de la nation et les indices de prix à la consommation.
L'institut organise le recensement de la population et effectue des enquêtes auprès des ménages et des entreprises. L'information, collectée puis traitée, permet à l'INSEE d'analyser la situation économique et sociale de la nation. L'ensemble des informations produites par l'INSEE est accessible à tous les individus.L'institut assure également des fonctions d'enseignement supérieur et de recherche dans le cadre du Groupe des écoles nationales d'économie et statistique. Il enseigne et forme des spécialistes de la statistique, de l'économie et du traitement de l'information
N. E.-M.
➙ Indicateur, prix, statistiques
Intégration
Regroupement d'activités au sein d'une même firme, ou d'un même groupe ; synonyme de « concentration ». Le terme est aujourd'hui utilisé aussi et surtout pour désigner le rapprochement économique entre pays : on parle de l'intégration européenne.
Une entreprise peut pratiquer l'intégration horizontale, qui lui permet de se concentrer sur une étape précise du processus de production, ou l'intégration verticale, qui recherche une présence tout au long du processus de production.
L'intégration horizontale fait rechercher à la firme la plus forte part de marché possible pour un produit précis, pneus, logiciels ou hamburgers. L'intégration verticale, ou organisation en filière, est pratiquée par exemple par les compagnies pétrolières : TotalFina-Elf fait de l'exploration pétrolière, creuse et exploite les puits de pétrole, raffine et vend de l'essence dans des stations à son nom...
À la fin du xxe siècle, l'intégration horizontale et verticale (ou concentration) augmente très vite avec la formation de conglomérats géants, dans des secteurs comme l'aéronautique (Aerospatiale Matra et DaimlerChrysler Aerospace ont formé EADS, European Aeronautic, Defense and Space Company), la chimie (Aventis, fusion de Rhône-Poulenc et de Hoechst) ou les nouvelles technologies (fusion de AOL et de Time Warner, en janvier 2000)
F. L.
➙ Filière, monopole
Intérêt
Somme due par un emprunteur à un prêteur, en plus du capital prêté.
Le taux d'intérêt est le pourcentage d'intérêt rapporté au capital. Par exemple, si Pierre prête à Paul la somme de 100 euros à 5 % pour un an, le taux d'intérêt est 5 % et l'intérêt versé par Paul à Pierre sera égal à 5 euros dans un an. Il existe en réalité une multitude de taux d'intérêt, chacun rémunérant telle ou telle forme de placement : taux d'intérêt à court terme ou à long terme, taux d'intérêt fixe ou variable... Il existe en France un taux d'intérêt maximal au-delà duquel il est interdit de prêter, c'est le taux d'usure.
Pour les auteurs classiques, le taux d'intérêt est le prix de la renonciation à la consommation : les individus préfèrent épargner plutôt que consommer si le placement est rémunérateur. Pour les économistes keynésiens, il est le prix de la renonciation à la liquidité : les individus préfèrent conserver leur épargne sous forme liquide, c'est-à-dire immédiatement disponible, si le taux d'intérêt est faible. Il guide donc les choix de consommation et d'investissement. Variable clef dans l'accumulation du capital et la croissance économique, le taux d'intérêt est surveillé, voire contrôlé, par les autorités monétaires
A. L.
➙ Banque, épargne
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