Mais sa véritable grandeur est dans la volonté de dépasser l’accidentel et le curieux. Ses mêlées diffèrent, par leur noblesse et leur économie, des créations de ses imitateurs, de Christophe Fratin (v. 1800-1864) à Auguste Cain (1822-1894). Ainsi peut-il aborder de nouveau le sujet noble, avec son Centaure et Lapithe (Salon de 1850), avec les allégories de la cour du Carrousel, au Louvre (1854), où l’artiste retrouve, par-delà les métopes du Parthénon, la « naïveté » de l’archaïsme grec.
C’est sans doute les extraordinaires aquarelles de Barye qui marquent le mieux pour l’esprit moderne l’évolution de l’artiste vers un art toujours plus dense, qui lie à la liberté romantique les préoccupations du classicisme. Il oublie ce soin des détails qui lui faisait marquer par exemple du bout du pinceau les moustaches de ses tigres, pour mieux faire ressortir l’essentiel, les masses. Les paysages, qui n’ont rien d’oriental, ont pour fonction de mettre en valeur l’animal. Les rochers, les végétations sombres de la forêt de Fontainebleau s’accordent idéalement avec la nature sauvage de ces hôtes inhabituels.
B. F.
A. Alexandre, A. L. Barye (Librairie de l’Art, 1889). / C. O. Zieseniss, les Aquarelles de Barye (Massin, 1954).
Bas-Empire
Période tardive de l’Empire romain, caractérisée par des symptômes de décadence qui annoncent l’effondrement de la civilisation romaine.
Pour l’historien, cette époque peut débuter dès 192 (mort de Commode), en 235 (chute de la dynastie des Sévères), ou en 284, date qui, avec l’avènement de Dioclétien, marque le début d’un relatif retour à l’ordre dû à la construction d’un nouvel édifice institutionnel. L’année 235 marque la fin de la grande époque de l’Empire, et 284 annonce au contraire le renouveau d’un monde qui tente de faire face à ses difficultés.
La fin du Bas-Empire peut, elle aussi, se situer à une date variable : 395, partition irréversible de l’Empire après Théodose ; 324, fondation de Constantinople, la rivale de Rome ; 476, fin de l’Empire d’Occident. Toutes ces limites sont factices, liées à des événements politiques, alors que l’Empire et la civilisation de la Romanie (terme consacré au ve s.) ont sombré progressivement pour céder la place au monde médiéval des Barbares. Victor Duruy, dans son Histoire des Romains, écrit de l’époque de la bataille d’Andrinople (378) : « Nous pourrions nous arrêter ici, car de Rome il ne reste rien : croyances, institutions civiles, organisation militaire, arts, littérature, tout a disparu et l’invasion a commencé. » Mais c’est à l’ensemble du Bas-Empire que l’on est tenté de reprocher de tourner déjà le dos à la vieille tradition romaine, car depuis la crise du iiie s. tout a été remis en question, et des réalités nouvelles se cachent sous les appellations traditionnelles.
Une société en évolution
Un des traits marquants de l’époque est le manque apparent d’hommes : quand on veut des soldats, on n’en trouve pas ; quand il faut travailler la terre, on manque de colons. Les villes se rétrécissent : elles s’enferment dans des remparts qui limitent leur superficie à une fraction de ce qu’elle était deux siècles plus tôt. Il ne semble pourtant pas y avoir eu réduction globale et massive de la population, car on retrouve les hommes dans les très grandes villes. Rome, qui se dépeuple au ve s., est au contraire très peuplée au ive. Et il y a de nouvelles métropoles, Milan, Ravenne, Aquilée, dont l’essor est dû à la proximité de la frontière à défendre et à l’hébergement des états-majors.
La plèbe urbaine préfère la vie oisive et parasitaire aux travaux des camps militaires. Elle se traîne aux spectacles et bénéficie des multiples distributions publiques. Quand le ravitaillement n’arrive pas, pour une raison climatique ou politique, elle s’agite. Les campagnes aussi sont parfois en proie au désordre : bagaudes, circoncellions ou donatistes se livrent au pillage. Les mœurs se sont barbarisées à l’image du code pénal : Dioclétien condamne à mort ceux qui ne respectent pas la réglementation des prix ; le supplice du bûcher n’est pas rare. Les persécutions contre les chrétiens, si elles ont cessé, ont laissé de féroces habitudes.
Mais cette société n’est pas une : il y a la plèbe rurale, accablée d’impôts et qui ne sait plus à qui se vouer, ou plutôt va bientôt savoir que son seul recours est de se donner à un seigneur ; il y a la plèbe urbaine ; il y a enfin les puissants, honestiores, les « honnêtes gens », par opposition aux humiliores, et qui ont toujours droit à plus d’égards, même s’ils sont une cible pour le fisc. Cette bonne société, très hétéroclite, comprend de nombreux hauts fonctionnaires et des propriétaires. Elle se divise aussi, et c’est bien le mot, en deux catégories qui ne s’aiment guère, les militaires d’un côté, l’aristocratie sénatoriale et lettrée de l’autre. Au niveau supérieur, cette antipathie se traduit par l’hiatus qui sépare de plus en plus l’empereur et le sénat de Rome.
Enfin, les esclaves. On en parle beaucoup moins. L’absence de conquêtes a tari la source de l’esclavage, et les esclaves se reproduisent peu. Toutefois on est stupéfait d’apprendre que certains propriétaires disposent, au ive s., de troupes de milliers d’esclaves. Le christianisme a incité à les traiter avec certains égards, non à les affranchir massivement. Mais il a contribué à réhabiliter le travail ouvrier, et le travailleur libre fait une sévère concurrence à l’esclave, qui n’est plus l’acteur essentiel de la production.
Une économie malade
Le sinistre iiie s., dans son désordre politique et économique, a tout ruiné. La production est faible, on répare plus qu’on ne construit, les lettres et les arts sombrent eux-mêmes dans un relatif abandon : « On mure les bibliothèques comme des tombeaux », dit Ammien Marcellin. La monnaie circule mal et peut être d’un aloi catastrophique : on avait inventé une pièce dite « saucée », pièce de bronze trempée dans un bain d’argent qui lui donnait l’apparence de la valeur. Aussi le troc rend-il bien des services, et l’État lui-même ne répugne pas à y faire appel. Il paie ses fonctionnaires en nature ; contribuables et fisc hésitent entre les règlements en nature ou en espèces, dont l’équivalence est tarifée par le barème de l’adaeratio. Le plus souvent donc, la réquisition semble avoir succédé à l’imposition.
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